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  • Intellectual property framework

    Overview

    Intellectual property is a right protected by the Constitution of the Republic of Angola. The fundamental intellectual property framework in Angola is provided in 2 main acts: the Legal Regime for the Protection of Copyright and Related Rights and the Industrial Property Law.

  • Commercial contract framework

    Overview

    Angolan law lays down a general principle of contractual freedom, which means that parties are mostly free to establish the terms and conditions to be observed by the contracts they enter into (exceptions are made to mandatory rules legally imposed which will depend on the specific contractual relationship) and are entitled to enter into contracts provided for in the law, but also into contracts that are not provided for in the law.

    Angolan law does not establish a unitary act or set of rules applicable to all commercial contracts. Depending on the specific contractual relationship, commercial contracts may be subject to the provisions of the Civil Code, Commercial Code, Copyright and Related Rights Law, and the Industrial Property Law as well as other specific legislation.

    The aforementioned set of rules changes according to the specific contract in question.

  • Copyrights

    Nature of right

    Copyright covers original literary, scientific and artistic intellectual creations, or works. Registration is not required for the acquisition or maintenance of copyright rights; however, there are certain specific copyright-related acts subject to registration in order to be valid.

    In Angola, copyright comprises economic and moral rights.

    In the scope of economic rights, copyright owners have the exclusive right to use, enjoy and dispose of their work, or to authorize the use of the work, wholly or in part, by third parties.

    Moral rights consist in the right to claim authorship of the work, as well as the right to ensure its genuineness and integrity.

    Legal framework

    Copyrights are governed by Law No. 15/14 of July 31, which introduced the Legal Regime for the Protection of Copyright and Related Rights.

    Duration of right

    As general rule, moral copyrights are unlimited in time and, therefore, are inalienable and imprescriptible. With respect to economic copyrights, copyright protection lasts for a term of 70 years, counted as of January 1 of the first year after the death of the author, as well as through the life of the author.

    In the case of works in collaboration, copyright expires 70 years after the death of the last surviving author. As per collective works or works originally assigned to a corporate person, copyright expires 70 years from the date of the first licit publication or disclosure, except if the individuals who create it were identified in the version of the work available to the public.

    For an anonymous work, or work that was legally published or disclosed without identifying the respective author, protection is for 70 years after publication or disclosure.

    Please note that, with respect to applied arts and photographic works, economic copyrights protection lasts for a term of 45 years, counted as of January 1 of the first year after the death of the author.

    Economic copyrights related to a broadcaster last up to 35th calendar year after the broadcast.

    Ownership / licenses

    Moral rights are inalienable.

    The copyright owner, as well as their successors or assignees, may authorize the use of the work by third parties or assign economic rights, wholly or partially.

    Granting an authorization to third parties in order for them to divulge, publish, use or explore the work does not imply the transfer of copyright rights.

    Authorization shall only be granted in writing, mandatorily including the parties involved, the title and type of the work, the rights concerned, the duration, place and price conditions.

    Please note that the assigns are only effective against third parties when registered.

    Remedies for infringement

    The copyright owner may request payment of compensation by the agent for damages and losses to repair the damage suffered as a result the infringement, as well as payment of expenses caused by that infringement, which may include legal expenses.

    The amount of the compensation is determined in accordance with the civil liability regime provided for by the Angolan Civil Code, taking into account the amount of material and moral damage suffered by the copyright owner, as well as the profit obtained by the offender.

    When it is proven that the infringing copies affect a right, the Court may order, ensuring that the penalty is proportionate to the seriousness of the offense and taking into account the legitimate interests of third parties, the destruction of those copies and their packaging or their elimination of trade channels by any other reasonable means, without compensation of any kind, in order to avoid any damage to the copyright owner.

  • Mask works / topographies

    Nature of right

    Mask works and topographies are not separately protected under Angolan law. They may be protected under patent law or by way of confidentiality.

    Legal framework

    Angolan has enacted no specific rules on protection of mask works or topographies. Although Angola is part of the WTO and has approved the TRIPS Agreement, it has not yet implemented any rules on mask works or topographies protection.

    Semiconductor technology, generally, and topographies, in particular, may be protected under the traditional intellectual property rules applicable to all types of technology, particularly patent law and the rules on confidential information. Therefore, matters such as the duration of the relevant rights, ownership and remedies depend on the type of protection used in connection with each specific mask work or topography.

    Duration of right

    Not applicable for this jurisdiction.

    Ownership / licenses

     Not applicable for this jurisdiction.

    Remedies for infringement

    Not applicable for this jurisdiction.

  • Patents

    Nature of right

    Patent rights cover new inventions, in all fields of technology, provided that they are new, involve an inventive step and are susceptible of industrial application.

    An invention shall be considered new if it does not form part of the state of the art, which comprises everything, inside or outside the country, made available to the public by means of a written or oral description, by use, or in any other way, before the date of filling of the patent application.

    An invention shall be considered involving an inventive step if it is not obvious to a person skilled in the art.

    An invention shall be considered susceptible of industrial application if it can be made or used in any kind of industry, including agriculture, fishing and handicraft.

    A national patent confers on its owner the exclusive right to exploit the patented invention in Angolan territory.

    Legal framework

    Patents are governed by the following:

    • Chapter II, the Industrial Property Law (Articles 2 to 14)
    • Membership of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), approved by Resolution No. 9/84 of July 20
    • Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property – approved by Resolution No. 22/05 of August 19
    • Cooperation Treaty patent (PCT) approved by Resolution No. 22/05 of August 19 and
    • Membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO), hence the TRIPS Agreement (Accession November 23, 1996).

    Duration of right

    Patent protection is granted up to a maximum period of 15 years from the date of filling of the patent application.

    Ownership / licenses

    Patents can be transferred in writing, by means of public deed, whether or not for financial reward.

    Patents may also be licensed in writing, wholly or partially, whether or not for financial reward, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis.

    Transfer of ownership and licenses shall be recorded in the Angolan Institute of Industrial Property to be effective against third parties.

    Remedies for infringement

    Whenever there is violation of or justified fear that another party may cause serious and difficult-to-repair harm to an industrial property right, including patent rights, the court may, at request of the interested party, order the appropriate measures to prevent any imminent violation or to prohibit continuation of the violation.

    Whoever illegally violates the industrial property rights of another person with intent or by negligence shall be obliged to pay a compensation to the injured party for damages resulting from the violation.

    In determining the amount of compensation for losses and damages, the court shall take into account the profit obtained by the infringer and the resulting damages and lost profits suffered by the injured party. The costs borne out of protection of the right in question and the investigation and termination of the harmful conduct shall also be taken in consideration, as well as personal injury.

    Infringement of the exclusive right granted by a patent may be also punishable as crime with imprisonment up to 6 months or a fine.

  • Trademarks

    Nature of right

    A trademark is a sign that distinguishes a company's goods or services, from the goods and services provided by other companies. There are 3 types of trademarks, namely:

    • Nominative: when constituted by letter(s) or word(s)
    • Figurative: consisting of figures or images and
    • Mixed: when it includes a combination of figures and words or letters in its constitution.

    The registered trademark confers to the owner, the right to prevent third parties that do not have their consent from using in the course of trade any sign which is identical or similar to the trademark in relation to goods and/or services which are identical or similar to those for which the trademark is registered.

    Legal framework

    Trademarks are governed by the following:

    • Chapter II, the Industrial Property Law (Articles 29 to 40)
    • Membership of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), approved by Resolution No. 9/84 of July 20
    • Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property – approved by Resolution No. 22/05 of August 19 and
    • Membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO), hence the TRIPS Agreement (Accession November 23, 1996).

    Angola is not a party to either the Madrid Agreement or the Madrid Protocol. As such, International Registrations (IRs) cannot be extended to Angola. Angola's accession to the Madrid Agreement and/or the Madrid Protocol is currently the subject of consultation, but the position is unlikely to change for a number of years to come.

    Duration of right

    National trademark registrations remain valid for 10 years starting from the date of filing of the application and may be indefinitely renewed for equal periods.

    Ownership / licenses

    Trademarks can be transferred in writing, wholly or partially, whether or not for financial reward. A transfer of the whole of the undertaking shall include the transfer of the trademark except where there is agreement to the contrary or circumstances clearly dictate otherwise.

    Trademarks may also be licensed in writing, wholly or partially, whether or not for financial reward, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis.

    Transfer of ownership and licenses must be recorded in the Angolan Institute of Industrial Property to be effective against third parties.

    Remedies for infringement

    Whenever there is violation of or justified fear that another party may cause serious and difficult-to-repair harm to an industrial property right, including trademarks, the court may, at request of the interested party, order appropriate measures to prevent any imminent violation or to prohibit continuation of the violation.

    Whoever illegally violates the industrial property rights of another person with intent or by negligence shall be obliged to pay a compensation to the injured party for the damages resulting from the violation.

    In determining the amount of compensation for losses and damages, the court shall take into account the profit obtained by the infringer and the resulting damages and lost profits suffered by the injured party. The costs borne out of protection of the right in question and the investigation and termination of the harmful conduct shall also be taken in consideration, as well as personal injury.

    Trademark infringement is punishable as crime with imprisonment up to 3 months or a fine.

  • Trade secrets

    Nature of right

    Trade secrets are not protected as property in Angola. However, the Angolan Industrial Property Law, in the chapter related to Crimes of Unfair Competition, characterizes as crimes certain conducts involving the unauthorized use of trade secrets. As a result, there is legal protection against the violation of trade secrets.

    Legal framework

    Trade secrets are addressed in article 73 of the Angolan Industrial Property Law.

    Duration of right

    Not applicable for this jurisdiction.

    Ownership / licenses

    Not applicable for this jurisdiction.

    Remedies for infringement

    Remedies available for infringement of trade secrets can include criminal remedies (imprisonment and monetary fine) and civil remedies (injunction to prevent the continuation of infringements and damages).

    Trade secret violation is punishable with a fine, if a more serious sanction does not apply by applying the provisions of the penal code and Law No. 9/89 (Law on Crimes Against the Economy).

  • Other key IP rights

    Nature of right

    Design

    Industrial design means any new arrangement or set of lines or colors that, for industrial or commercial purposes, can be applied to the ornamentation of a product by any manual, mechanical, chemical, simple or combined process.

    The registered design confers to the owner the right to prevent third parties that do not have their consent from using it. The aforementioned use shall cover, in particular, the making, offering, putting on the market, importing, exporting or using of a product in which the design is incorporated or to which it is applied, or stocking such a product for those purposes.

    Industrial designs

    Industrial designs

    Legal framework

    Design

    Designs are governed by Chapter III of the Industrial Property Law (Articles 15 to 28).

    Duration of right

    Design

    Designs registrations remain valid for 5 years starting from the date of filing of the application and may be renewed for 2 consecutive times of 5 years each.

    Ownership / licenses

    Design

    Designs may be licensed in writing, wholly or partially, whether or not for financial reward, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis.

    Transfer of ownership and licenses must be recorded in the Angolan Institute of Industrial Property to be effective against third parties.

    Remedies for infringement

    Design

    Whenever there is violation of or justified fear that another party may cause serious and difficult-to-repair harm to an industrial property right, including designs, the court may, at request of the interested party, order appropriate measures to prevent any imminent violation or to prohibit continuation of the violation.

    Whoever illegally violates the industrial property rights of another person with intent or by negligence shall be obliged to pay a compensation to the injured party for the damages resulting from the violation.

    In determining the amount of compensation for losses and damages, the court shall take into account the profit obtained by the infringer and the resulting damages and lost profits suffered by the injured party. The costs borne out of protection of the right in question and the investigation and termination of the harmful conduct shall also be taken in consideration, as well as personal injury.

    Infringement of the exclusive right granted by a registered design may be punishable with a fine.

  • Intellectual property in employment context

    Employees

    As a general rule, the copyright over a work made under a labor agreement or in compliance with functional obligations is determined by agreement between the parties. In case no agreement exists, it is presumed that the ownership over the work belongs to the respective intellectual creator. In cases where there is a service provision contract, the property rights over the work are transferred to the contractor or entity represented by it.

    The right to patent shall belong to the inventor or their successors in title. Notwithstanding, if an invention was made during the performance of an employment contract in which inventive activity is provided for, the right to the patent belongs to the employer.

    Consultants / contractors

    In principle, consultants and contractors will retain ownership of the intellectual property developed by them, unless otherwise agreed by the parties or provided for in the law.

  • Key commercial contract considerations

    Registration of commercial agreements

    There are no general registration requirements for commercial contracts under Angolan law; however, certain exceptions may arise. Furthermore, Industrial Property Rights licenses are subject to registration within the Angolan Industrial Property Institute (IAPI) in order to be enforceable against third parties.

    Recognized language of commercial agreements

    There are no general requirements under Angolan law that provide that contracts must be written in Portuguese. However, in certain cases – for instance, contracts with consumers – the Portuguese language is mandatory, and, if the contract is to be used in specific situations – for example, for purposes of evidence in court or used with public authorities – translation to Portuguese is required.

    Country-specific issues for online content

    Electronic contracts are regulated under Presidential Decree No. 202/11 of July 22.

    Enforceability of online/clickwrap/shrinkwrap terms

    Contracts may be concluded electronically, provided that it does not affect its validity or effectiveness due to the use of this medium. Please note that general contractual clauses requiring electronic conclusion of consumer contracts are prohibited.

    The provider shall make available to the recipients, before the conclusion, unambiguous minimum information including (i) the contract conclusion process, (ii) whether or not the contract is stored by the service provider and accessibility by the recipient, (iii) the language or languages in which the contract may be concluded, (iv) the technical means which the provider makes available so that errors of introduction which may be contained in the order form may be identified and corrected, (v) the contractual terms and general clauses of the contract to be concluded, (vi) the codes of conduct subscribed and information on how to consult them electronically  and (vii) the effective technical means which allows the recipient to identify and correct inserted errors.

    Governing law

    The interpretation and enforceability of contracts is a matter of governing law. The choice of law by the parties is accepted as a general principle, except when otherwise provided for by law; please, however, note that, in certain cases, there are rules of mandatory application – for instance, in the scope of contracts concluded with consumers.

  • Key commercial contract terms

    Enforceability of warranty disclaimers

    This will depend on the specific warranty. Notwithstanding, the law may provide some restrictions on the enforceability of warranty disclaimers (eg, for reasons of consumer protection).

    Enforceability of exclusions/limitations of liability indemnification

    As general rule, the enforceability of exclusions or limitation of liability is limited under Angolan law. According to civil law, limitation of liability or exclusion of liability concerns the grounds of liability itself and the damages and losses. The law is not absolutely clear when dealing with the matter; therefore, some hold the opinion that the law does not prevent clauses limiting or excluding liability for acts of mere negligence, while others suggest that all clauses of exclusion or limitation are completely null and void.

    Indemnification

    Indemnification clauses in contracts are, in principle, enforceable, but may be subject to restrictions provided for in the law. It is relatively common to stipulate in commercial agreements that the indemnifying party will indemnify and hold harmless the other party against claims of third parties related to the subject matter of the agreement.

    Electronic signatures

    According to Angolan law, a qualified electronic signature is equivalent to an autographic signature in paper documents. An electronic document shall only be deemed to be signed for purposes of evidence where it meets the requirements set by the law on electronic signature and certification.

  • Key contacts
    Murillo Costa Sanches
    Murillo Costa Sanches
    Of Counsel DLA Piper [email protected] T +351 213 583 659 View bio
    Joni Garcia
    Joni Garcia
    Associate DLA Piper ADCA Angola [email protected] T +244 926 612 525

Key commercial contract considerations

Recognized language of commercial agreements

Angola

There are no general requirements under Angolan law that provide that contracts must be written in Portuguese. However, in certain cases – for instance, contracts with consumers – the Portuguese language is mandatory, and, if the contract is to be used in specific situations – for example, for purposes of evidence in court or used with public authorities – translation to Portuguese is required.

Argentina

Agreements are generally entered in Spanish. However, it is legally possible to enter agreements written in other languages. These agreements must be translated when presented in court. Spanish language may be necessary in consumer transactions.

Australia

It is preferable to use consumer-friendly English to ensure transparency.

Austria

There are strict requirements on the clarity of business-to-consumer contracts. In principle, the clarity is in principle jeopardized if the consumer is not familiar with the language of the contract. In case of Austrian consumers, any contract that is not written in German will likely be unclear to the consumer and thus invalid.

Belgium

Commercial contracts may be concluded in any language. From an enforceability perspective, the claimant must prove that the counterparty consented to the terms, which includes understanding the language. For consumers, this evidentiary burden of proof will be a high bar to clear if the contract language is not the official language of the region of residence of the consumer.

Brazil

In general, it is acceptable to execute contracts in another language (eg, English); however, if the contract must be taken to any Brazilian authority, including courts, only Portuguese versions or sworn translations will be accepted.

The Consumer Defense Code requires the presentation of products and services to consumers in Brazil to be in Portuguese, including precise, clear and ostensive information related to their characteristics, qualities, composition, price and warranty, among others. The contract will not be binding on consumers if it is written in a way that may be difficult for the consumer to understand, and the fact that the contract is written in another language might suffice for it to be deemed difficult to understand by a consumer.

Canada

Contracts are a matter of provincial, not federal, law. Generally speaking, a contract may be expressed in any language, although English and, French are the only official languages in Canada. In Québec, special steps are required to be taken if a contract is drafted in any language other than French.

Chile

Chilean law does not contain, in principle, any provisions on the language of contracts. According to the general rules, both parties must be able to understand the essential elements of the contract in order to conclude it.

In the use of general terms and conditions towards consumers, the language of the contract in principle must be Spanish, except for foreign language words that have been incorporated into the lexicon (ie, that are commonly used). An exception is admissible if the consumer expressly accepts the use of general terms and conditions in another language by signing a written document in Spanish attached to the contract and obtains a copy of the contract in Spanish.

China

Generally, contracts signed in other languages are acceptable, but a Chinese translation should be provided for reference if the contracts are submitted to the relevant Chinese authorities or courts.

Colombia

Commercial agreements may be valid even if they are not written in Spanish, which is Colombia’s official language. As per Decision 486 and 351 both issued by the CAN, the filing before the relevant authority to register intellectual property rights must be in Spanish. Nonetheless, if the documents or agreements are in a different language, they will be accepted only if they are translated to Spanish.

Czech Republic

Czech law does not set any language requirement. However, commercial agreements should be comprehensible to both parties. Authorities generally require translations to Czech. Most commercial agreements are in Czech. At the same time use of English is very common (typically when one of the parties is a foreign entity or English language template is used to avoid translation costs).

Denmark

Commercial contracts in a business-to-business transaction are often in English, although Danish is also recognized.

In a business-to-consumer contract, Danish is preferable. In addition, Danish consumer law requires that specific compulsory information is provided in Danish if the product or service has been marketed in Danish by the trader, unless the consumer has consented to receive the information in another language.

Finland

There are generally no language requirements for commercial agreements. Most B2B agreements are drafted in English or Finnish.

France

There is no requirement under French law that business-to-business contracts must be in French.

However, if documentation is provided to French consumers, the contract should at a minimum specify which party is responsible for producing French labeling or users' guides. Pursuant to the French Language Law of August 4, 1994 (Loi Toubon), any documentation or communication made to French consumers must be in French; any French translation must be as legible as the original version.

In addition, under the French Language Law, a French or translated version of the agreement is required when concluding a contract with a public entity in France.

Germany

Commercial contracts can be concluded in any language that both parties understand. The recognized language basically depends on the language used by the contracting parties prior to the conclusion of the contract. In particular with regard to consumers, companies shall specify the applicable language prior to the conclusion of the contract. If, for example, information on the company homepage regarding products or services was displayed in German, the contract with the consumer, including related terms and conditions, must also be in German.

Hong Kong, SAR

English – preferably "plain English" that is consumer-friendly – is the usual language for commercial contracts. Consumer-facing agreements and terms are often provided in dual language (ie, English and Traditional Chinese). Where one version of a contract in a certain language is to take priority over the other, it should be expressly stated in the contract.

Hungary

There is no limitation in connection with the language of license agreements. Both parties shall understand the language of such agreements. If, however, the signatory of a contract does not speak the language in which the contract is executed, the contract may be null and void.

India

English is the most commonly used language for contracts in India.

Indonesia

Under Article 31 of Law Number 24 of 2009 on Flag, Language, State Emblem and National Anthem, the Indonesian language must be used in any memorandum of understanding or any agreement entered by an Indonesian with a state institution, Indonesian government institution, Indonesian private entity or Indonesian citizen. Such memorandum of understanding or agreement that involves a foreign party may also be made in the national language of the foreign party and/or in English. Further, Article 26 paragraph (4) Presidential Reg. 63 provides that, in case of any discrepancy in the language interpretation used in such memorandum of understanding or agreement, the language to be prevailed can be further agreed by the parties of the memorandum of understanding or agreement.

Ireland

English is the recognized language for commercial contracts in Ireland. There are some specific provisions in consumer protection law in Ireland which inform not just the content of business to consumer commercial agreements but also the style of English used, encouraging clear and intelligible language to be used for the benefit of the consumer.

Israel

In general, there is no requirement under Israeli law that a commercial agreement will be drafted in any specific language, to the extent that the chosen language will be understood by all parties to the agreement.

In consumer-type agreements, entering into a transaction with a consumer by exploiting the consumer’s lack of knowledge of the specific language of the transaction is considered an unfair influence by the dealer which is prohibited. Such a claim would have to be proved by the consumer according to the specific circumstances of the matter. There is a general presumption that, if an individual has decided to enter into a transaction, they understand its contents; however, such presumption, of course, can be rebutted. In addition, in remote sale transactions, mandatory disclosure documents are to be sent to the consumer in Hebrew or in the language used during the marketing stage.

Italy

Generally, the parties are free to determine the language of the contract. However, with regard to business-to-consumer agreements for the sale of goods and standard terms and conditions, use of the Italian language is mandatory. Moreover, should 1 or more of the parties not be familiar with a given foreign language, said party may claim the invalidity of some clauses of the contract.

Japan

Japanese language is used for consumer-facing commercial agreements though it is not mandatory for a contract to be enforceable. In business transactions, English agreements are not common but they are enforceable.

Luxembourg

Commercial contracts may be concluded in any language. From an enforceability perspective, the claimant must prove that the counterparty consented to the terms, which includes understanding the language. For consumers, this evidentiary burden of proof is difficult to satisfy if the contract language is not the official language of the region of residence of the consumer.

Mexico

Spanish. Documents to be filed with a governmental authority shall be translated into Spanish by an official translator.

Netherlands

Commercial contracts may be concluded in any language, albeit that contracts concluded with consumers must be sufficiently understandable for a consumer. This could imply the need for contracts in the Dutch language.

New Zealand

A contract in plain English that is consumer-friendly is preferred. In consumer contracts in particular, certain terms may be unenforceable if they are not brought to the consumer's attention in a clear and unambiguous manner.

Nigeria

There is no general requirement for contracts to be in a specific language in order to have legal effect. As a basic principle, it is important to ensure that the written terms of agreements are in plain language that can be easily understood. However, documents to be filed with the court and other government agencies must be in English, the official language in Nigeria.

Norway

Commercial contracts in business-to-business transaction are often in English, although Norwegian is the most common language between smaller companies.

Though not expressly required under mandatory law, Norwegian is preferable and recommended in business-to-consumer contracts. In case of business-to-consumer contracts entered into through distance selling, where the Norwegian Rights of Cancellation Act applies, the contractual terms must be presented in the Norwegian language if an e-commerce site is deemed to “target” Norwegian consumers. Whether a website is deemed to target Norwegian consumers will depend on an overall assessment of various factors, such as language of the site, whether customer service is provided in local language or whether one can pay in local currency, among others.

Peru

N/A

Philippines

English, and specifically "plain English" that is consumer-friendly, is preferred, particularly in consumer-facing commercial agreements and terms.

In the event of litigation, documentary evidence in the English or Filipino language is generally admissible as evidence under the Revised Rules of Evidence, as amended. In contrast, documents in an unofficial language may be admitted in evidence only when accompanied with a translation into English or Filipino.

Poland

Commercial agreements may be drafted in any language that the parties choose. However, contracts concluded with consumers have to be drafted in Polish. Also, for the purpose of providing the contract with the authorities or to register the contract in order to cause specific legal consequences, it may be necessary to prepare a Polish version or a sworn translation of the contract.

Portugal

There are no general requirements under Portuguese law that provide that contracts must be written in Portuguese. However, in certain cases (eg, contracts with consumers), Portuguese language is mandatory, and, if the contract is to be used in specific situations (eg, for purposes of evidence in court or used with public authorities), translation to Portuguese is required.

Romania

There are no mandatory requirements in relation to the language of contracts concluded between professionals. However, legalized translations into Romanian are necessary for court proceeding purposes. For contracts concluded with consumers, Romanian is mandatory.

Russia

The agreement can be executed in any language. However, for agreements concluded with Russian consumers (B2C), the Russian version is necessary as its absence may entail the risk of consumer claims based on "lack of information on the goods." In addition, Russian counterparties may request a Russian translation for administrative purposes, such as for tax inspections.

Saudi Arabia

Generally, there is no legal requirement to execute contracts in Arabic, although there are exceptions (for example, when contracting with the KSA government). It is however important to bear in mind that, if brought before the KSA courts/authorities, contracts and related documentation will need to be in the Arabic language or translated into Arabic by a certified translator.

Singapore

Generally, English is the language used in commercial agreements.

Slovak Republic

Slovak language is the official language in the Slovak Republic. However, in general, commercial agreements may be concluded in a foreign language.

South Korea

Any language agreed between parties can be adopted as governing language of a contract. However, the STCA requires that standardized contract terms be provided in language and expression that can be easily understood by customers. Providing the standardized contract term in Korean can be a positive factor in meeting the requirement, but the positive effect is not so significant in case of large business entity customers.

Spain

Parties are in principle free to choose the language to govern their contract. In consumer-facing commercial agreements and terms, Spanish is mandatory (with a relevant role of regional languages).

Sweden

Commercial contracts in a business-to-business situation are often in English, although Swedish is the preferred language.

Though not expressly required under mandatory law, Swedish is recommended for contracts in a business-to-consumer situation to avoid any arguments by consumers that they are not to be bound by the agreement because they were not able to understand the content thereof. Furthermore, the Swedish Consumer Agency may in certain circumstances also impose on a company to use Swedish in its agreements with consumers (including general terms and conditions). If English is used however, "plain English" that is consumer-friendly is preferred.

In a business-to-consumer situation, user manuals and safety warnings, for example, should be provided in Swedish or with easily understood symbols. If not, the product may be deemed faulty.

Switzerland

The English language is recognized in both business and consumer-related contracts. However, it is recommended that for consumer contracts one of the official Swiss languages (German, French or Italian) is used.

Taiwan, China

The law is silent on the recognized language of commercial agreements. Chinese is the usual language for commercial agreements between local persons, and English is the usual language for the agreements between local people and foreigners.

Ukraine

It is highly recommended for a commercial contract with a Ukrainian party to be written in Ukrainian or be bilingual (ie., in Ukrainian and language of the other party).

According to the E-Commerce Law dated September 3, 2015, an offer to conclude an e-contract, text of such e-contract and electronic communication regarding such e-contract shall be made in Ukrainian. At the buyer’s request, the electronic agreement may be concluded in another language upon the parties’ consent.

United Arab Emirates

Contracting parties are free to choose the governing language of their agreements but, if an agreement is to be submitted to any official body or is subject to consideration in a local court in the UAE, it must be translated into Arabic.

United Kingdom

There is no general requirement that contracts be in English language in order to have legal effect. In relation to consumer contracts and notices, however, a trader must ensure that the written terms of the consumer contract and written consumer notices are in plain and intelligible language. The courts may strike down limitations or similarly onerous provisions in consumer facing contracts which are not worded sufficiently clearly or with sufficient prominence.

United States

English – specifically plain English that is consumer-friendly – is preferred, particularly in consumer-facing commercial agreements and terms.